MANAGERS’ ATTITUDES TOWARDS PEOPLE Essay

The room in which double-deckers approach the performance of their jobs and the doings they display towards subordinate supply is likely to be conditioned by predispositions well-nigh multitude, and gentleman record and postulate.Drawing on Mas emits pecking order of involve model (which is discussed in Chapter 12), McGregor rate forward two suppositions astir(predicate) human temper and behaviour at twist. He argues that the style of focusing adopted is a function of the four-in-hands attitudes towards raft and assumptions slightly human nature and behaviour. The two suppositions ar called hypothesis X and theory Y, and ar based on polar assumptions about spate and endure. executableness Xassumptionsabout humannature surmise X tallys the carrot-and-stick assumptions on which traditional systems be based, and was widely accepted and practised before the schooling of the human relations approach. Its assumptions be thatthe average person is lazy and ha s an implicit in(p) dislike of work most masses must be coerced, dominateled, enjoin and threatened with punishment if the boldness is to achieve its objectivesthe average person emptys province, prefers to be directed, lacks ambition and values security most of allandindigence occurs just now at the physiological and security levels.The central principle of hypothesis X is direction and control through with(predicate) with(predicate) a centralized system of organisation and the exercise of authority. McGregor questions whether the affirmableness X approach to human nature is correct, and the relevance today of perplexity practices which are based upon it. Assumptions based on a Theory X approach, and the traditional use of rewards and sanctions exercised by the nature of the directors position and authority, are likely to result in an consumptive or authoritarian style of steering.Theory Yassumptionsabout humannatureAt the a nonher(prenominal) extreme to Theor y X is Theory Y which interprets the assumptions consistent with current research knowledge. The central principle of Theory Y is the integration of individualistic and organisational goals. Its assumptions arefor most citizenry work is as natural as play or rest mass testament exercise self-sufficiency and self-control in the service of objectives to which they are committed consignment to objectives is a function of rewards associated with their achievement view asn the practiced conditions, the average worker gage learn to accept and to essay responsibilitythe capacity for creative thinking in solving organisational problems is distributed widely in the commonwealththe intellectual latent of the average person is precisely partially view as and motivating occurs at the affiliation, esteem and self- factualisation levels as well as the physiological and security levels.McGregor implies that a Theory Y approach is the best steering to elicit co-operation from member s of an organisation. It is the task of caution to create the conditions in which individuals whitethorn run across their motivational imply, and in which they achieve their own goals through meeting the goals of the organisation. McGregor develops an analytic thinking of the implications of accepting Theory Y in regard to performance appraisal, judgeship of salaries and promotions, liaison, staffline relationships, loss leadinghip, management development and the animal trainerial team.managerial conduct AND EFFECTIVENESSManagerial strategiesAlthough Theory X and Theory Y are based on polar extremes and are an oversimplification, they do represent identifiable philosophies which influence managerial behaviour and strategies. For example, as Lord Sieff comments Now and over a gain ground it is indispensable to criticize people, but rather than tick them off, provided you screwing set forth them in no doubt as to what the issue is, I am sure it pays to avoid being censo rious but try alternatively to appeal to the innate capacity for self-criticism. Whatever you do, avoid making a mountain out of a molehill. nearly people have the potential to be self-motivating. They can best achieve their personal goals through self-direction of their efforts towards meeting the goals of the organisation. Broadening educational standards and changing social values represent that people today have wider expectations of the quality of works life, including opportunities for consultation and participation in decisions which affect them. Managers should develop practices based to a greater extent on an dead on target understanding of human behaviour and motivation. The Theory Y approach, however, is non a soft option. In practice it is often elusiveto achieve undefeatedly. It can be frust evaluate and condemnation-consuming, and mistakes pull up stakes occur.Since 1952 Ive been stumbling around buildings and running patriarchal Theory Y departments, divisio ns, and finally one whole Theory Y comp any Avis. In 1962, after thirteen years, Avis had never made a profit (except one year when they jiggled their depreciation rates). Three years subsequent the company had grown inter fieldly (not by acquisitions) from $30 million in sales to $75 million in sales, and had made successive one-year profits of $1 million, $3 million, and $5 million. If I had anything to do with this, I ascribe it all to my employment of Theory Y. And a faltering, stumbling, groping, mistake-ridden application it was.Robert Townsend6Demands ofthe bitThe two views of Theory X and Theory Y persist to represent extremes of the natural aim of managers towards a particular style of behaviour. In practice, however, the actual style of management behaviour adopted will be influenced by the demands of the situation.Where the job offers a steep degree of intrinsic satisfaction or involves a variety of tasks, an element of problem-solving and the exercise of initiativ e, or where output is difficult to throwaway in quantitative terms, an informal, participative approach would seem to be much than than effective. It is more likely to lead to a naughtyer level of staff morale. In many cases this would apply to work of a scientific, technical or professional nature. Where commitment to the goals of the organisation is almost a prerequisite of membership, much(prenominal) as in certain voluntary or charity organisations, for example, therefore a Theory Y approach would clearly seem to be most appropriate.Use of a TheoryX approachHowever, flat if a manager has a elemental belief in Theory Y assumptions there whitethorn be occasions when it is necessary, or more appropriate, to adopt a Theory X approach. When the nature of the job itself offers modest intrinsic reward or limited opportunities to compensate higher-level necessarily, a more dictatorial style of management faculty work best. Some jobs are designed narrowly, with highly pre dictable tasks, and output measured precisely. This is the case, for example, with many tortuous take processes in manufacturing firms. With these types of jobs a Theory X approach whitethorn be inquireed if an adequate level of performance is to be maintained.MANAGERIAL BEHAVIOUR AND EFFECTIVENESSThe cynic might describe efforts to turn Theory Y into practice as doing with difficulty what comes naturally to the Japanese. at that place, excellent managers apply principles of behaviour which translate perfectly into horse opera language and which have longsighted been echoed in the progressive subjects of the west. Yet you still encounter the old ostrich attitudes that generated western companies so much damage in the past for instance, the literary argument that to emulate Japan is im attainable because of its peculiar culture. But the famous national enthusiasm for practiced business and effective management isnt simply a product of Japans culture. After all, sloppy west ern habits, like investing too little in productive capacity, naked products, train, quality and marketing are hardly cultural not un slight handsome business economics are built into the western mentality.Robert Heller 12THE MANAGERIAL/LEADERSHIP GRIDOne fashion of describing and evaluating different styles of management is the Blake and Mouton Managerial power system (see shape 7.1). First published as the Managerial Grid in 1964, restated in 1978 and 198513 and republished in 1991as the leaders Grid,14 the Grid provides a basis for comparison of managerial styles in terms of two principal dimensions anguish for outturn advert for people. charge for production is the amount of emphasis which the manager places on accomplishing the tasks in hand, achieving a high level of production and getting results or profits. This is represented along the crosswise axis of the Grid. Concern for people is the amount of emphasis which the manager gives to subordinates and colleagues as individuals and to their needs and expectations. This is represented along the vertical axis of the Grid.Five basic combinationsConcern for is not how much business enterprise, but indicates the character and strength of assumptions which be the managers own basic attitudes and style of management. The significant battery-acid is how the manager expresses concern about production or about people. The quaternion corners and the centre of the Grid provide vanadium basic combinations of degree of concern for production coupled with degree of concern for people (see Figure 7.1(a)).the destitute manager (1,1 rating), low concern for production and low concern for people the authoritycompliance manager (9,1 rating), high concern for production and low concern for peoplethe country club manager (1,9 rating), low concern for production and high concern for people the middle-of-the-road manager (5,5 rating), bearconcern for production and moderate concern for people andthe team mana ger (9,9 rating), high concern for production and high concern for people.Managers with a 1,1 rating feed to be remote from their subordinates and believe in the minimum straw man from their present position. They do as little as they can with production or with people. Too much help to production will cause difficulties with staff and too much attention to the needs of staff will cause problems with production.Team managementThoughtful attention to theneeds of people for adjoiningrelationships leads to acomfortable, friendly organisationatmosphere andwork tempo.Concern for peopleWork accomplishment isfrom committed peopleinterdependence through acommon stake in organisationpurpose leads to relationshipsof send and respect.Middle-of-the-road managementAdequate organisation performance ispossible through balancing the necessityto get work out while maintaining moraleof people at a satisfactory level.Impoverished management delegacycompliancemanagementExertion of minimum effortto get call for work doneis appropriate to sustainorganisation membership.Efficiency in operations resultsfrom arranging conditions ofwork in such a port thathuman elements interfereto a minimum degree.In Opportunistic management, people adaptand shift to any Grid style needed to gain the maximumadvantage. surgery occurs harmonise to asystem of selfish gain. travail is given only for anadvantage or personal gain.9+9 Paternalism/maternalismReward and praise are bestowedto people in break for loyalty and bowing failure to comply leadsto punishmentFigure 7.1 The leaders Grid(Source Blake, R. R. and McCanse, A. A. (1991) leadership Dilemmas Grid Solutions, Gulf Publishing Co., Houston (1991), Grid Figure, p. 29, Paternalism Figure, p. 30, self- tasteing Figure, p. 31. Reproduced by permission of Grid International, Inc.)MANAGERIAL BEHAVIOUR AND EFFECTIVENESSManagers with a 9,1 rating are autocratic. They tend to rely on a centralised system and the use of authority. Staff are reg arded as a means of production and motivation is based on competition surrounded by people in order to get work done. If staff challenge an teaching method or standard procedure they are likely to be viewed as unco-operative. The 1,9 rating managers believe that a surfeited staff will accept what is required of them and achieve a reasonable level of output. Production is petty(a) to the avoidance of conflict and maintenance of harmony among the staff. Managers will seek to arrest agrees between staff and solutions acceptable to everyone. Although innovation whitethorn be encouraged, they tend to reject good ideas if likely to cause difficulties among the staff.The 5,5 rating is the middle-of-the-road management with the approach of live and let live and a tendency to avoid the real issues. This style ofmanagement is the dampened pendulum with managers swinging between concern for production and concern for people. Under pressure, this style of management tends to become task management (9,1). Where this strains relations and causes resentment from staff, however, pressure is eased and managers adopt a compromise approach. If there is a swing too much the other way (towards 1,9) managers are likely to take a tighter and more hardened approach.Managers with a 9,9 rating believe in the integrating of the task needs and concern for people. They believe in creating a situation whereby people can satisfy their own needs by commitment to the objectives of the organisation. Managers will discuss problems with the staff, seek their ideas and give them freedom of action. Difficulties in working relationships will be handled by confronting staff directly and attempting to work out solutions with them.These five styles of management represent the extremes of the Grid. With a nine-point scale on each axis there is a total of 81 different mixtures of concern for production and concern for people. Most people would come up with a score somewhere in an intermediary pos ition on the Grid.Two additionalgrid styles1991 interlingual rendition of the Grid also covers two additional styles opportunism and 9+9 paternalism/maternalism, which take account of the reaction of subordinates.In opportunistic management, organisational performance occurs according to a system of exchanges, whereby effort is given only for an equivalent measure of the aforesaid(prenominal). People adapt to the situation to gain maximum advantage of it. (See Figure 7.1(b).)In 9+9 paterna heelic/maternalistic management, reward and approval are granted to people in return for loyalty and obedience and punishment is threatened for failure to comply (see Figure 7.1(c)).A synopsis of the seven basic combinations of the Grid is given in Table 7.1. modeling FOR PATTERNS OF BEHAVIOURThe Managerial Grid provides a framework in which managers can identify, study and review their patterns of behaviour. Instead of consider management styles as a dichotomy of either/or, Blake and Mouton c laim that the Managerial Grid illustrates that the manager can gain the benefits of maximising, simultaneously, methods which are both production-oriented and people-oriented. The 9,9 position, although an ideal, is worth working for.Based on their experience of using the original Grid, Blake and Mouton give three reasons why it is important to shoot which style of management is use to achieve production through people.THE ROLE OF THE MANAGERThe 7-SorganisationalframeworkIn order to get people to accept solutions, the manager needs continually to co-ordinate and balance in order to compromise conflicting values. Theleader creates excitement in work and develops choices that give substance to images that excite people.In their relationships with other people, managers maintain a low level of emotional involvement. Leaders have empathy with other people and give attention to what events and actions mean.Managers see themselves more as conservators and regulators of the existing order of affairs with which they identify, and from which they gain rewards. Leaders work in, but do not belong to, the organisation. Their common sense of identity does not depend upon membership or work roles and they search out opportunities for change.The differences between leadership and management have been applied by Watson to the 7-S organisational framework of strategy, building, systems, style, staff, skills and higher-up (or shared) goals. Watson suggests that whereas managers tend towards reliance onstrategy,structure,systems,leaders have an inherent inclination for utilisation of the soft Ss of style,staff,skills, andshared goals.Watson also suggests, although cautiously, that 7-S management could be seen as the province of leaders. Managers will not ordinarily be capable of achieving enough mastery of all seven factors to attain a consistently high level of organisational performance.Distinction between management and leadershipBased on experience of management approac hes in both commerce and the military, Hollingsworth questions how many managers consider themselves first and foremost as leaders, relegating manager to their job title. He argues that commercial managers need to learn from the armed forces if they wish to be viewed as leaders. Having accepted that there are some links between management and leadership, Hollingsworth lists six fundamental differences.A manager administers a leader innovates.A manager maintains a leader develops.A manager focuses on systems and structure a leader focuses on people. A manager relies on control a leader inspires trust.A manager keeps an eye on the stinkpot line a leader has an eye on the horizon. A manager does things right a leader does the right thing.Not everyone would agree with this list. Robinson, for example, suggests that if the sacred scripture manager is replaced by administrator then the lists works. However, whatever your view the list makes for a helpful basis for critical discuss ion on the nature of management and leadership.25 In Chapter 6 we discussed management as getting work done through the efforts of other people. To be an effective manager it is necessary to exercise the role of leadership. A common view is that the job of the manager requires theability of leadershipCHAPTER 8 THE NATURE OF LEADERSHIPTHE QUALITIES OR TRAITS get alongThe first approach impresss that leaders are born and not made. leadership consists of certain inherited characteristics, or personality traits, which distinguish leaders from their chase the so-called Great Person theory of leadership. The qualities approach focuses attention on the man or woman in the job and not on the job itself. It suggests that attention is given to the selection of leaders rather than to training for leadership. For example, Drucker (writing originally in 1955) makes the point that Leadership is of utmost importance. Indeed there is no substitute for it. But leadership cannot be created or pro moted. It cannot be taught or learned.There have been many research studies into the common traits of leadership. However, attempts at identifying common personality, or physical and mental, characteristics of different good or successful leaders have met with little success.Investigations have identified lists of traits which tend to be overlapping, contradictory or with little correlation for most features.It is noticeable that identicalness or originality usually features in the list of traits. This itself suggests that there is little in common between specific personality traits of different leaders. It is perhaps possible therefore to identify general characteristics of leadership ability, such as self-confidence, initiative, tidings and belief in ones actions, but research into this area has revealed little more than this. In a series of interviews with headhunters, and senior figures in industry and the city, Management Today came up with a list of Britains most powerful w omen in business. A conclusion from the list is that the pilfer 50 women do not fit any pattern. They wield the assortment of power and influence that defies stereotypes.Limitations ofthe traitsapproachThere are two go on limitations with this approach.First, there is bound to be some subjective judgement in determining who is regarded as a good or successful leader.Second, the lists of possible traits tend to be very long and there is not continuously agreement on the most important. fifty-fifty if it were possible to identify an agree list of more specific qualities, this would provide little explanation of the nature of leadership. It would do little to help in the development and training of prospective leaders. Although there is still some interest in the qualities, or traits, approach, attention has been directed more to other approaches to leadership.The qualities or traits approach gives rise to the questions whether leaders are born or made and whether leadership is an art or a science. The important point, however, is that these are not mutually exclusive alternatives. Even if there are certain inborn qualities which make for a good leader, these natural talents need encouragement and development. Even if leadership is something of an art, it still requires the application of special skills and techniques.THE FUNCTIONAL (OR GROUP) APPROACHThis approach to leadership focuses attention not on the personality of the leader, nor on the man or woman in the job, per se, but on the functions of leadership. Leadership is always present in any conclave engaged in a task. The functional approach views leadership in terms of how the leaders behaviour affects, and is affected by, the group of followers. This approach concentrates on the nature of the group, the followers or subordinates. Itfocuses on the content of leadership.WORK MOTIVATION AND REWARDSMaslows power structure of needs model erst a lower need has been slaked, it no longer acts as a strong motivator. The needs of the following higher level in the hierarchy demand satisfaction and become the motivating influence. Only unsatisfied needs motivate a person. Thus Maslow asserts that a satisfied need is no longer a motivator.Not necessarilya primed(p) orderAlthough Maslow suggests that most people have these basic needs in about the order indicated, he also makes it clear that the hierarchy is not necessarily a fixed order. There will be a number of exceptions to the order indicated. For some people there will be a retroversion of the hierarchy, for exampleSelf-esteem may seem to be more important than beloved to some people. This is the most common reversal of the hierarchy. It is often based on the belief that the person most love is strong, confident or inspires respect. People seeking love try to put on a show of aggressive, confident behaviour. Theyare not very seeking selfesteem as an end in itself but for the sake of love needs. For some innately creative peopl e the drive for creativity and self-actualisation may arise despite lack of satisfaction of more basic needs.Higher-level needs may be lost in some people who will continue to be satisfied at lower levels only for example, a person who has experienced chronic unemployment. Some people who have been take of love in early childhood may experience the ineradicable loss of love needs.A need which has continued to be satisfied over a long period of time may be undervalued. For example, people who have never suffered from chronic hunger may tend to underestimate its effects, and regard food as rather an unimportant thing. Where people are dominated by a higher-level need this may assume greater importance than more basic needs.People with high ideals or values may become martyrs and give up everything else for the sake of their beliefs.Maslow claims that the hierarchy is proportionally universal among different cultures, but he recognises that there are differences in an individuals m otivational content in a particular culture.THE INDIVIDUALDegrees ofsatisfactionMaslow points out that a false ruling may be given that a need must be satisfied fully before a subsequent need arises. He suggests that a more realistic description is in terms of fall percentages of satisfactionalong levels of the hierarchy. For example, arbitrary figures for the average person may be satisfied 85 per cent in physiological needs 70 per cent in refuge needs 50 per cent in love needs 40 per cent in esteem needs and 10 per cent in self-actualisation needs. There is a gradual subject of a higher-level need as lower-level needs become more satisfied. The relative importance of these needs changes during the psychological development of the individual. Maslow subsequently modified his views by noting that satisfaction of self-actualisation needs by growth-motivated individuals can actually enhance these needs rather than reduce them. Furthermore, he accepted that some higher-level needs may still emerge after long deprivation of lowerlevel needs, rather than only after their satisfaction.Evaluation of Maslows theoryBased on Maslows theory, once lower-level needs have been satisfied (say at the physiological and rubber levels) giving more of the same does not provide motivation. one-on-ones advance up the hierarchy as each lower-level need becomes satisfied. Therefore, to provide motivation for a change in behaviour, the manager must direct attention to the next higher level of needs (in this case, love or social needs) that seek satisfaction.Applications tothe worksituationHowever, there are a number of problems in relating Maslows theory to the work situation. These include the followingA effectual basisfor evaluationPeople do not necessarily satisfy their needs, especially higher-level needs, just through the work situation. They satisfy them through other areas of their life as well. Therefore the manager would need to have a complete understanding of peoples private and social life, not just their behaviour at work. There is doubt about the time which elapses between the satisfaction of a lower-level need and the emergence of a higher-level need.Individual differences mean that people place different values on the same need. For example, some people prefer what they might see as the comparative safety of working in a bureaucratic organisation to a more highly paid and higher status position, but with less job security, in a different organisation.Some rewards or outcomes at work satisfy more than one need. Higher salary or promotion, for example, can be applied to all levels of the hierarchy. Even for people at heart the same level of the hierarchy, the motivating factors will not be the same. There are many different ways in which people may seek satisfaction of, for example, their esteem needs. Maslow viewed satisfaction as the main motivational outcome of behaviour. But job satisfaction does not necessarily lead to improved work pe rformance.Although Maslow did not originally intend that the need hierarchy should necessarily be applied to the work situation, it still the Great Compromiser prevalent as a theory of motivation at work. Despite criticisms and doubts about its limitations, the theory has had a significant impact on management approaches to motivation and the design of organisations to meet individual needs. It is a convenient framework for viewing the different needs and expectations that people have, where they are in the hierarchy, and the different motivators that might be applied to people at different levels. The work of Maslow has pull attention to a number of different motivators and stimulated study and research. The need hierarchy model provides auseful base for the evaluation of motivation at work. For example, Steers and Porter suggest a list of general rewards and organisational factors utilise to satisfy different needs (see Table 12.1).29WORK MOTIVATION AND REWARDSApplying Maslows need hierarchyNeeds levelsGeneral rewardsOrganisational factors1 PhysiologicalFood, water, sex, calmnessa. Payb. Pleasant working conditionsc. Cafeteria2. SafetySafety, security,stability, protectiona. Safe working conditionsb. Company benefitsc. Job security3. SocialLove, affection,belongingnessa. Cohesive work groupb. Friendly supervisionc. Professional associations4. EsteemSelf-esteem, self-respect,prestige, statusa. Social acknowledgementb. Job titlec. High status jobd. Feedback from the job itself5. Self-actualisationGrowth, advancement,creativitya. Challenging jobb. Opportunities for creativityc. Achievement in workd. betterment in the organisationSaunders contends that despite the time that has elapsed, Maslows theory remains watertight.When prehistoric man first took shelter in a undermine and lit a fire, he was satisfying his lowest physiological and safety needs. When a Buddhist achieves a state of nirvana, she is satisfying the fifth and highest self-actualisation The counteract these days might be a three-bedroom semi with garden and off-street parking, but the fact remains that once weve got enough to feed, c swarmhe and abide our families money is a low-level motivator for most people. The dash for cash is soon replaced by the desire for recognition, status and ultimately (although Maslow reckoned that a lot of us never get this far) the need to express yourself through your work. gain ofemployeecommitmentRevisiting and developing Maslows hierarchy, Stum looked at the dynamic between an individual and the organisation, and proposes a new employee/employer social contract that enables organisations to improve employee commitment and retention. The five levels of workforce needs hierarchy are shown in a Performance Pyramid.Safety/security the need to feel physically and psychologically safe in the work environment for commitment to be possibleRewards the need for extrinsic rewards in compensation and benefits Affiliation the intrinsic n eed for a sense of belonging to the work team or organisationGrowth addressing the need for positive individual and organisational change to drive commitmentWork/life harmony the drive to achieve a sense of fulfilment in balancing work and life responsibilities.